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What else can we consider, besides pharmacogenetics? Biomarkers. And biomarkers can be quite helpful. Because we can think of biomarkers that may be able to identify people at risk of developing diabetes. We may have biomarkers that may identify the rate of progression from a very early stage of diabetes toward a more advanced stage of the condition. We may have biomarkers that would be associated with the risk of complications, to the response to treatment, and so on. And this is also information that we could consider factoring into our ‘big equation’ for describing a patient’s phenotype.
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Franks PW, Poveda A. Lifestyle and precision diabetes medicine: will genomics help optimise the prediction, prevention and treatment of type 2 diabetes through lifestyle therapy? Diabetologia. 2017 May;60(5):784-792.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28124081

Ferrannini E, Natali A, Camastra S, Nannipieri M, Mari A, Adam KP, Milburn MV, Kastenmüller G, Adamski J, Tuomi T, Lyssenko V, Groop L, Gall WE. Early metabolic markers of the development of dysglycemia and type 2 diabetes and their physiological significance. Diabetes. 2013 May;62(5):1730-7.

Allaoui G, Rylander C, Averina M, Wilsgaard T, Fuskevåg OM, Berg V. Longitudinal changes in blood biomarkers and their ability to predict type 2 diabetes mellitus-The Tromsø study. Endocrinol Diabetes Metab. 2022 Mar;5(2):e00325.